The Thresholds of Sediment-Generating Rainfall from Hillslope to Watershed Scales in the Loess Plateau, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Source
2.3. Statistical Analysis
2.3.1. The Calculation of Thresholds for Sediment-Generating Rainfall
2.3.2. Thresholds of Rainfall Covering Area Proportion (CAP)
2.3.3. Thresholds Under Different Rainfall Types
2.3.4. The Evaluation of Thresholds
3. Results
3.1. Thresholds of Sediment-Generating Rainfall
3.2. Thresholds of Covering Area Proportion (CAP)
3.3. Thresholds of Sediment-Generating Rainfall under Different Rainfall Types
4. Discussion
4.1. The Thresholds of Sediment-Generating Rainfall Under Different Rainfall Types
4.2. The Thresholds of Sediment-Generating Rainfall across Different Spatial Scales
4.3. The Index Selection for Thresholds of Sediment-Generating Rainfall
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Lal, R. Soil erosion and the global carbon budget. Environ. Int. 2003, 29, 437–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bakker, M.M.; Govers, G.; Rounsevell, M.D.A. The crop productivity–erosion relationship: An analysis based on experimental work. Catena 2004, 57, 55–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rajan, K. Soil organic carbon–the most reliable indicator for monitoring land degradation by soil erosion. Curr. Sci. 2010, 99, 823–827. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, J.; Van Oost, K.; Chen, L.; Govers, G. Moderate topsoil erosion rates constrain the magnitude of the erosion-induced carbon sink and agricultural productivity losses on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Biogeosciences 2015, 12, 14981–15010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- García-Ruiz, J.M.; Beguería, S.; Lana-Renault, N.; Nadal-Romero, E.; Cerdà, A. Ongoing and Emerging Questions in Water Erosion Studies. Land Degrad. Dev. 2017, 28, 5–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Valero-Garcés, B.L.; Navas, A.; Machı́n, J.; Walling, D. Sediment Sources and Siltation in Mountain Reservoirs: A Case Study from the Central Spanish Pyrenees. Geomorphology 1999, 28, 23–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wischmeier, W.H.; Smith, D.D. Rainfall energy and its relationship to soil loss. Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 1958, 39, 285–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xie, Y.; Liu, B.; Nearing, M.A. Practical thresholds for separating erosive and non-erosive storms. Trans. ASAE 2002, 45, 1843–1847. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fang, N.F.; Wang, L.; Shi, Z.H. Runoff and soil erosion of field plots in a subtropical mountainous region of China. J. Hydrol. 2017, 552, 387–395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Todisco, F. The internal structure of erosive and non-erosive storm events for interpretation of erosive processes and rainfall simulation. J. Hydrol. 2014, 519, 3651–3663. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xia, L.; Song, X.Y.; Fu, N.; Li, H.Y.; Li, Y.L. Threshold standard of erosive rainfall under different underlying surface conditions in the loess plateau Gully Region of East Gansu, China. Adv. Water Sci. 2018, 29, 828–838. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wischmeier, W.H.; Smith, D.D. Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses: A Guide for Conservation Planning. In Agriculture Handbook; United States Department of Agriculture: Washington, DC, USA, 1978; p. 537. [Google Scholar]
- Wang, B.W.; Fang, S.W.; Song, Y.J.; Yang, J. Research for standard of erosive rainfall on Quaternary Red Soil area in north of Jiangxi province in China. Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng. 2013, 29, 100–106. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, W.Z. Study on the relations between rainfall characteristics and loss of soil in loess region. Bull. Soil Water Conserv. 1984, 58–63. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, B.; Rosewell, C. An assessment of a daily rainfall erosivity model for new south wales. Aust. J. Soil Res. 1996, 34, 139–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Renard, K.G.; Foster, G.R.; Weesies, G.A.; McCool, D.K.; Yoder, D.C. Predicting soil erosion by water: A guide to conservation planning with the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE). In Agricultural Handbook; United States Department of Agriculture: Washington, DC, USA, 1997; p. 703. [Google Scholar]
- Zhou, D.P.; Xiong, M.B.; Lin, L.J.; Wang, H.H. Influence of slope gradient on erosive values in slope cropland with purple soil. Bull. Soil Water Conserv. 2009, 29, 159–162, 167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cantón, Y.; Solé-Benet, A.; Vente, J.D.; Boix-Fayos, C.; Calvo-Cases, A.; Asensio, C.; Puigdefábregas, J. A review of runoff generation and soil erosion across scales in semiarid south-eastern Spain. J. Arid Environ. 2011, 75, 1254–1261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fang, H.Y.; Chen, H.; Cai, Q.G.; Li, Q.Y. Scale effect on sediment yield from sloping surfaces to basins in hilly loess region on the loess plateau in china. Environ. Geol. 2007, 52, 753–760. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lei, A.L.; Tang, K.L. Significance and Character of Conception of Soil Erosion Chain. J. Soil Water Conserv. 2000, 14, 79–83. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matmon, A.; Bierman, P.R.; Larsen, J.; Southworth, S.; Pavich, M.; Caffee, M. Temporally and spatially uniform rates of erosion in the southern appalachian great smoky mountains. Geology 2003, 31, 155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tooth, S. Process, form and change in dryland rivers: A review of recent research. Earth-Sci. Rev. 2000, 51, 67–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Verstraeten, G.; Prosser, I.P.; Fogarty, P. Predicting the spatial patterns of hillslope sediment delivery to river channels in the Murrumbidgee catchment, Australia. J. Hydrol. 2007, 334, 440–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zheng, M.G.; Qin, F.; Sun, L.Y.; Qi, D.; Cai, Q.G. Spatial scale effects on sediment concentration in runoff during flood events for hilly areas of the loess plateau, China. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 2011, 36, 1499–1509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zheng, M.G.; Yang, J.S.; Qi, D.L.; Sun, L.Y.; Cai, Q.G. Flow-sediment relationship as functions of spatial and temporal scales in hilly areas of the Chinese loess plateau. Catena 2012, 98, 29–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liang, Y.; Jiao, J.Y. Analysis on rainfall standards while sediment occurring in small watersheds on the Loess Plateau. Sci. Soil Water Conserv. 2019, 17, 8–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, L.L.; Yao, W.Y.; Wang, W.L.; Yang, E.; Chen, L.; Zhang, P. Sediment transport capacity and flow-sediment relationship in different topographical units of different spatial scales in hilly loess region. Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng. 2015, 31, 120–126. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, B.H.; Li, Z.B.; Li, P.; Xiao, L.; Chang, E.H.; Zhang, Y.; Gao, B. Effects of ecological construction on transformation of different water bodies in typical watershed on loess plateau. Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng. 2017, 33, 179–187. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, B.Y.; Nearing, M.A.; Shi, P.J.; Jia, Z.W. Slope Length Effects on Soil Loss for Steep Slopes. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 2000, 64, 1759. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gao, H.D.; Li, Z.B.; Jia, L.L.; Li, P. Estimation of evapotranspirations from watersheds under different water and soil conservation measures using SEBAL model—A case study of Jiuyuangou and Peijiamao. Acta Pedol. Sin. 2012, 49, 260–268. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Wang, L.L. Runoff-Sediment Coupling Mechanism of Different Geomorphic Unit in the Loess Hilly-Gully Region Doctor; Northwest A&F University: Yangling, China, 2017. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Zheng, M.G.; Cheng, W.M. Determination of erosive events in the Chinese Loess Plateau using the runoff threshold. J. Soils Sediments 2017, 17, 1182–1190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huff, F.A. Time distribution of rainfall in heavy storms. Water Resour. Res. 1967, 3, 1007–1019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, W.Z.; Jiao, J.Y. Rainfall and Erosion Sediment Yield and Sediment Reduction of Soil and Water Conservation in the Loess Plateau; Science China Press: Beijing, China, 1996. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Zheng, M.G.; Chen, X.A.; Magar, V. Statistical determination of rainfall-runoff erosivity indices for single storms in the chinese loess plateau. PLoS ONE 2015, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bi, C.X. Study on Watershed Sediment Yield Rainfall and Contributions of the Watershed Sediment Yield Rainfall to Runoff and Sediment in Huangfuchuan River Basin. Master’s Thesis, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yangling, China, 2013. (In Chinese). [Google Scholar]
- Zheng, M.G. Scale independence and spatial uniformity of specific sediment yield in loess areas of the wuding river basin, northwest china. Land Degrad. Dev. 2017, 28, 1450–1462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, H.; Zhang, X.P.; Abla, M.; Lü, D.; Yan, R.; Ren, Q.F.; Ren, Z.Y.; Yang, Y.H.; Zhao, W.H.; Li, P.F.; et al. Effects of vegetation and rainfall types on surface runoff and soil erosion on steep slopes on the loess plateau, China. Catena 2018, 170, 141–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jiao, J.Y.; Wang, W.Z.; Hao, X.P. Precipitation and erosion characteristics of rain-storm in different pattern on Loess Plateau. J Arid Land Resour. Environ. 1999, 13, 38–42. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fang, H.Y.; Cai, Q.G.; Chen, H.; Li, Q.Y. Effect of Rainfall Regime and Slope on Runoff in a Gullied Loess Region on the Loess Plateau in China. Environ. Manag. 2008, 42, 402–411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bochet, E.; Poesen, J.; Rubio, J.L. Runoff and soil loss under individual plants of a semi-arid mediterranean shrubland. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 2006, 31, 536–549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Esteves, M.; Lapetite, J.M. A multi-scale approach of runoff generation in a sahelian gully catchment: A case study in niger. Catena 2003, 50, 255–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Roo, A.P.J.; Riezebos, H.T.H. Infiltration experiments on loess soils and their implications for modeling surface runoff and soil erosion. Catena 1992, 19, 221–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Q.W.; Wang, Z.L.; Wu, B.; Shen, N.; Liu, J.E. Identifying sediment transport capacity of raindrop-impacted overland flow within transport-limited system of interrill erosion processes on steep loess hillslopes of china. Soil Tillage Res. 2018, 184, 109–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wei, W.; Jia, F.Y.; Yang, L.; Chen, L.D.; Zhang, H.D.; Yu, Y. Effects of surficial condition and rainfall intensity on runoff in a loess hilly area, china. J. Hydrol. 2014, 513, 115–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zheng, M.G. A spatially invariant sediment rating curve and its temporal change following watershed management in the Chinese Loess Plateau. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 630, 1453–1463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Buendia, C.; Vericat, D.; Batalla, R.J.; Gibbins, C.N. Temporal Dynamics of Sediment Transport and Transient In-channel Storage in a Highly Erodible Catchment. Land Degrad. Dev. 2016, 27, 1045–1063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nadal-Romero, E.; Petrlic, K.; Verachtert, E.; Bochet, E.; Poesen, J. Effects of slope angle and aspect on plant cover and species richness in a humid Mediterranean badland. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 2014, 39, 1705–1716. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Y.B. Rainfall Erosivity Modeling of Small Watershed. Ph.D. Thesis, Institute of Soil and Water Conservation Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yangling, China, 1990. (In Chinese). [Google Scholar]
- Bull, L.J.; Kirkby, M.J.; Shannon, J.; Hooke, J.M. The impact of rainstorms on floods in ephemeral channels in southeast Spain. Catena 2000, 38, 191–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nortcliff, S.; Ross, S.M.; Thornes, J.B. Soil moisture, runoff and sediment yield from differentially cleared tropical rainforest plots. In Vegetation and Erosion: Processes and Environ; John Wiley and Sons Ltd.: Chichester, UK, 1990; pp. 419–436. [Google Scholar]
- Scipal, K.; Scheffler, C.; Wagner, W. Soil moisture-runoff relation at the catchment scale as observed with coarse resolution microwave remote sensing. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2005, 2, 417–448. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhou, J.; Fu, B.J.; Gao, G.Y.; Lu, Y.H.; Liu, Y.; Lu, N.; Wang, S. Effects of precipitation and restoration vegetation on soil erosion in a semi-arid environment in the Loess Plateau, China. Catena 2016, 137, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Plot No. | Geomorphic Unit | A (m2) | L (m) | S (°) | No. of Rainfall Events | No. of Runoff Events | Specific Sediment Yield (t km−2) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | The upper hillslope 1 | 38.8 | 19.4 | 18.0 | 701 | 48 | 414.9 ± 69.3 |
2 | The upper hillslope 2 | 97.0 | 19.4 | 18.0 | 701 | 49 | 664.9 ± 132.9 |
3 | The upper hillslope 3 | 194 | 19.4 | 18.0 | 701 | 50 | 586.7 ± 118.5 |
4 | The lower hillslope | 181 | 18.1 | 23.9 | 701 | 50 | 751.5 ± 160.7 |
5 | Hillslope | 456 | 45.6 | 22.0 | 701 | 50 | 667.5 ± 132.8 |
6 | Whole slope | 2492 | 98.9 | 32.3 | 701 | 52 | 1961.2 ± 430.0 |
7 | Gully-slope 1 | 1584 | 55.6 | 39.0 | 701 | 45 | 651.6 ± 152.7 |
8 | Gully-slope 2 | 1024 | 53.0 | 40.1 | 701 | 41 | 1215.0 ± 367.8 |
Location | Scale | Gauging Station | Control Area (km2) | Channel Length (m) | No. of Rainfall Events | No. of Runoff Events | Average Specific Sediment Yield (t km−2) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Qiaogou | Subwatershed | No. 1 branch | 0.069 | 869 | 701 | 59 | 1233.4 ± 237.2 |
No. 2 branch | 0.093 | 805 | 701 | 60 | 1563.1 ± 464.7 | ||
Qiaogou | 0.45 | 1400 | 701 | 64 | 1196.9 ± 395.8 | ||
Peijiamao | Watershed | Peijiamaogou | 39.3 | 11,000 | 706 | 72 | 2201.1 ± 79.6 |
Spatial Scale | Geomorphic Unit | P | I30/(mm·min−1) | I60/(mm·min−1) | PI30/(mm2·min−1) | PI60/(mm2·min−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plot scale | The upper hillslope 1 | 13.8 | 0.23 | 0.18 | 4.11 | 3.19 |
The upper hillslope 2 | 14.1 | 0.24 | 0.18 | 4.29 | 3.35 | |
The upper hillslope 3 | 14.1 | 0.23 | 0.19 | 4.17 | 3.26 | |
The lower hillslope | 13.9 | 0.24 | 0.20 | 4.50 | 3.56 | |
Hillslope | 14.1 | 0.22 | 0.19 | 4.00 | 3.29 | |
Gully-slope 1 | 14.2 | 0.26 | 0.20 | 4.06 | 3.32 | |
Gully-slope 2 | 15.2 | 0.26 | 0.21 | 4.51 | 3.49 | |
Whole slope | 14.0 | 0.23 | 0.19 | 3.39 | 2.83 | |
Plot average | 14.2 | 0.24 | 0.19 | 4.13 | 3.29 | |
Subwatershed scale | No. 1 branch | 14.3 | 0.25 | 0.19 | 4.13 | 3.14 |
No. 2 branch | 15.3 | 0.29 | 0.23 | 5.92 | 4.02 | |
Qiaogou | 15.6 | 0.27 | 0.21 | 5.06 | 3.62 | |
Subwatershed average | 15.1 | 0.27 | 0.21 | 5.04 | 3.59 | |
Watershed scale | Peijiamaogou | 15.9 | 0.20 | 0.16 | 4.35 | 3.49 |
Precipitation Station | Index | CAP/(%) | MI/% | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Qiaogou | P > 15.6 mm | 50.5 | 8.1 | 2.4 | 10.6 |
I30 > 0.27 mm·min−1 | 47.6 | 1.0 | 2.4 | 3.4 | |
PI30 > 5.14 mm2·min−1 | 47.4 | 2.1 | 3.0 | 5.1 | |
Peijiamaogou | P > 15.9 mm | 31.0 | 7.8 | 2.7 | 10.5 |
I30 > 0.20 mm·min−1 | 30.3 | 2.1 | 2.3 | 4.4 | |
PI30 > 4.35 mm2·min−1 | 26.2 | 3.5 | 2.4 | 5.9 |
Spatial Scale | Site | A | B | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
P/mm | I30/(mm·min−1) | PI30/(mm2·min−1) | P/mm | I30/(mm·min−1) | PI30/(mm2·min−1) | ||
Plot scale | The upper hillslope 1 | 9.3 | 0.24 | 2.30 | 24.5 | 0.28 | 6.85 |
The upper hillslope 2 | 9.3 | 0.24 | 2.42 | 25.7 | 0.27 | 7.48 | |
The upper hillslope 3 | 9.3 | 0.21 | 2.25 | 24.9 | 0.26 | 6.98 | |
The lower hillslope | 9.5 | 0.24 | 2.44 | 27.5 | 0.26 | 7.73 | |
Hillslope | 10.1 | 0.23 | 2.75 | 25.1 | 0.28 | 7.26 | |
Gully-slope 1 | 9.0 | 0.23 | 2.39 | 27.2 | 0.27 | 6.47 | |
Gully-slope 2 | 8.8 | 0.23 | 2.18 | 27.8 | 0.27 | 8.91 | |
Whole slope | 10.2 | 0.23 | 2.36 | 27.4 | 0.23 | 5.80 | |
Plot average | 9.4 | 0.23 | 2.39 | 26.3 | 0.27 | 7.19 | |
Subwatershed scale | No. 1 branch | 13.5 | 0.33 | 5.35 | 20.2 | 0.18 | 4.28 |
No. 2 branch | 15.8 | 0.40 | 6.09 | 22.9 | 0.20 | 4.73 | |
Qiaogou | 12.6 | 0.32 | 4.21 | 21.6 | 0.25 | 5.19 | |
Subwatershed average | 14.0 | 0.35 | 5.22 | 21.6 | 0.21 | 4.73 | |
Watershed scale | Peijiamaogou | 12.1 | 0.25 | 2.79 | 21.4 | 0.20 | 5.46 |
Precipitation Station | Rainfall Type | Index | CAP/(%) | MI/% | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Qiaogou | A | P > 12.6 mm | 20.0 | 1.9 | 5.3 | 7.2 |
I30 > 0.34 mm·min−1 | 68.3 | 0.8 | 2.3 | 3.0 | ||
PI30 > 4.01 mm2·min−1 | 27.8 | 0.8 | 4.6 | 5.3 | ||
B | P > 21.6 mm | 83.0 | 4.6 | 0.8 | 5.4 | |
I30 > 0.25 mm·min−1 | 41.2 | 1.9 | 3.3 | 5.2 | ||
PI30 > 5.19 mm2·min−1 | 54.9 | 2.4 | 2.7 | 5.2 | ||
Peijiamaogou | A | P > 12.1 mm | 9.6 | 1.6 | 3.2 | 4.8 |
I30 > 0.25 mm·min−1 | 46.4 | 1.6 | 2.0 | 3.6 | ||
PI30 > 2.79 mm2·min−1 | 29.3 | 2.0 | 2.8 | 4.8 | ||
B | P > 21.4 mm | 67.3 | 4.0 | 2.9 | 6.9 | |
I30 > 0.20 mm·min−1 | 32.4 | 2.7 | 3.4 | 6.1 | ||
PI30 > 5.46 mm2·min−1 | 31.9 | 2.7 | 2.7 | 5.3 |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Liang, Y.; Jiao, J.; Dang, W.; Cao, W. The Thresholds of Sediment-Generating Rainfall from Hillslope to Watershed Scales in the Loess Plateau, China. Water 2019, 11, 2392. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112392
Liang Y, Jiao J, Dang W, Cao W. The Thresholds of Sediment-Generating Rainfall from Hillslope to Watershed Scales in the Loess Plateau, China. Water. 2019; 11(11):2392. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112392
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiang, Yue, Juying Jiao, Weiqin Dang, and Wei Cao. 2019. "The Thresholds of Sediment-Generating Rainfall from Hillslope to Watershed Scales in the Loess Plateau, China" Water 11, no. 11: 2392. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112392